A pacifist Christian anarchist movement inspired by the ideas and writings of Leo Tolstoy.
The Tolstoyan movement, inspired by the philosophical and religious views of the renowned Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy, emerged as a significant social movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Tolstoy, best known for his literary masterpieces like “War and Peace” and “Anna Karenina,” developed a Christian philosophy deeply influenced by the teachings of Jesus, especially the Sermon on the Mount. This movement, also known as Tolstoyanism, was characterized by its adherence to the principles of Christian anarchism, nonviolent resistance, and simple living, which Tolstoy himself embraced in his later years.
Origins and Philosophy
Tolstoy’s philosophical journey led him to adopt a lifestyle of simplicity and non-violence. He advocated for vegetarianism, viewing it as an extension of his pacifist beliefs. Vegetarianism during Tolstoy’s time was often seen as unhealthy according to then-prevailing medical views, but Tolstoy and his followers emphasized the physical vitality of vegetarians. Vegetarian restaurants often doubled as meeting spaces for Tolstoyans and other social reformers.
At the core of Tolstoyanism was the belief in the inherent divinity of every individual and the rejection of all forms of violence and coercion. Tolstoy and his followers advocated for a return to the original teachings of Jesus Christ, which they interpreted as a call for universal love, forgiveness, and nonviolence. They believed that these principles should be applied not only to personal relationships but also to social and political structures.
One of the key tenets of the Tolstoyan Movement was the concept of “non-resistance to evil,” which Tolstoy derived from his interpretation of Jesus’ teachings, particularly the Sermon on the Mount. This principle held that individuals should not use violence to resist evil or oppression, but instead respond with love and understanding. This idea would later influence other nonviolent resistance movements, including those led by Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr.
Global Influence and Communities
The movement gained international attention and inspired various groups and colonies worldwide. One of the most notable instances was in South Africa, where Mohandas K. Gandhi, later known as Mahatma Gandhi, established Tolstoy Farm near Johannesburg in 1910. This cooperative colony spanned over 1,100 acres and was dedicated to the principles of Tolstoyan philosophy, particularly serving satyagrahis, or practitioners of nonviolent resistance.
In the United States, notable Tolstoyans included Ernest Howard Crosby, who supported the Christian Commonwealth Colony in Columbus, Georgia. This colony, established in 1896, was influenced not only by Tolstoy but also by the views of Christian socialists, Henry George, and Edward Bellamy.
In Europe, Tolstoy’s impact was initially delayed due to censorship in Russia, but with the efforts of figures like Vladimir Chertkov, a movement began to grow in the 1890s. This movement saw a significant rise after Tolstoy’s death in 1910, particularly following the Russian Revolutions of 1917. Communities based on Tolstoyan principles were established in various Russian provinces, but these were eventually suppressed or lost independence due to collectivization and ideological purges in the late 1920s.
The Brotherhood Church in England, under John Coleman Kenworthy, established Tolstoyan colonies in Essex and Gloucestershire. Gandhi, who visited one of these colonies, viewed it as a failed Tolstoyan experiment due to its eventual abandonment of Tolstoy’s principles.
Education and Simple Living
Education was another crucial aspect of the Tolstoyan philosophy. Tolstoy established a school on his estate for peasant children, where he implemented his ideas about education based on freedom, equality, and non-coercion. This educational approach, which emphasized experiential learning and respect for the child’s individuality, influenced progressive education movements around the world.
The Tolstoyan Movement also emphasized the importance of simple living and the rejection of material wealth and luxury. Tolstoy himself famously renounced his aristocratic lifestyle and sought to live as a peasant on his estate, Yasnaya Polyana. His followers similarly embraced a life of voluntary poverty, manual labor, and self-sufficiency. They believed that by simplifying their lives and reducing their material needs, they could focus on spiritual growth and the betterment of society.
One of the most notable Tolstoyan communities was the Whiteway Colony in Gloucestershire, England, founded in 1898. This community sought to implement Tolstoy’s principles of simple living, pacifism, and communal ownership. While it faced numerous challenges and evolved over time, Whiteway remains an example of the practical application of Tolstoyan ideals.
Challenges and Opposition
In Russia, the Tolstoyan Movement faced opposition from both the Orthodox Church and the Tsarist government. Tolstoy’s religious views, which rejected the authority of the Church and many traditional Christian doctrines, led to his excommunication in 1901. Despite this, his ideas continued to spread, particularly among the Russian intelligentsia and dissidents.
The Tolstoyan Movement’s emphasis on individual conscience and rejection of state authority also brought it into conflict with the Tsarist regime. Many Tolstoyans refused to serve in the military or pay taxes, leading to persecution and imprisonment. However, their commitment to nonviolence meant that they did not actively resist the government, instead choosing to bear the consequences of their beliefs peacefully.
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Tolstoyan Movement faced new challenges under the Soviet regime. While some Tolstoyans initially hoped that the revolution would bring about a more just society, they soon found themselves at odds with the new government’s policies. The Soviet authorities viewed the Tolstoyans’ religious beliefs and pacifism as incompatible with communist ideology and the needs of the new state.
Prominent Followers and Influence
The movement attracted various prominent followers, including philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, who was deeply influenced by Tolstoy’s “The Gospel in Brief.” Tolstoy’s advocacy for pacifism and nonviolent resistance profoundly influenced leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., and Cesar Chavez. American social activist Dorothy Day, founder of the Catholic Worker Movement, was also a prominent follower of Tolstoy’s teachings.
In India, Mahatma Gandhi corresponded with Tolstoy and was deeply influenced by his ideas on nonviolent resistance and simple living. Gandhi’s own philosophy of Satyagraha, or nonviolent civil disobedience, drew heavily from Tolstoyan principles.
In the United States, Tolstoy’s ideas found resonance with various peace movements and religious groups, particularly among Quakers and other Christian pacifists. The Catholic Worker Movement, founded by Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin in the 1930s, was also influenced by Tolstoyan principles of voluntary poverty and nonviolence.
Modern Relevance and Continued Influence
The Tolstoyan Movement’s emphasis on environmental stewardship and sustainable living has found new relevance in the context of modern ecological concerns. Many contemporary intentional communities and eco-villages draw inspiration from Tolstoyan ideas about living in harmony with nature and rejecting consumerism.
While the Tolstoyan Movement never became a large-scale organized movement, its ideas have continued to inspire individuals and groups committed to nonviolence, social justice, and spiritual growth. Tolstoy’s writings on ethics, religion, and social issues remain widely read and studied, ensuring that the core principles of Tolstoyanism continue to be engaged with and debated in the 21st century.
In recent years, there has been renewed academic interest in the Tolstoyan Movement, with scholars examining its historical development, philosophical underpinnings, and relevance to contemporary issues. This research has helped to shed new light on the movement’s complexities and its place within the broader context of 19th and 20th-century social and religious thought.
Today, while there are no large-scale Tolstoyan communities or organizations, the movement’s ideas continue to be explored and applied by individuals and small groups around the world. These modern-day Tolstoyans often focus on specific aspects of Tolstoy’s philosophy, such as nonviolence, simple living, or spiritual seeking, adapting them to contemporary contexts and challenges.
The Tolstoyan Movement, with its emphasis on individual conscience, nonviolence, and the pursuit of a more just and harmonious world, remains a significant chapter in the history of social and spiritual movements. Its enduring influence can be seen in various forms of pacifism, alternative lifestyles, and ethical philosophies that continue to shape discussions about social justice, personal responsibility, and the nature of human society.
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