A powerful 17th-century Scottish religious movement advocating for Presbyterianism and opposing royal and episcopal control.
The Covenanters were a significant religious and political movement in 17th-century Scotland, characterized by their staunch support for Presbyterianism and their opposition to the Anglican episcopal system imposed by King Charles I. Their name derives from their practice of signing “covenants,” which were agreements pledging their commitment to uphold their religious beliefs and practices.
Origins and Early Development
The roots of the Covenanters can be traced back to the early 17th century, during a period of religious and political turbulence in Scotland. King James VI of Scotland, who also became James I of England in 1603, sought to unify the churches of Scotland and England under a single episcopal system, which was met with resistance in Scotland. The Scottish Church, although Episcopalian in structure, was deeply influenced by Calvinist doctrine and had strong anti-Catholic sentiments. This background set the stage for conflict, as many Scots perceived the King’s religious reforms as an attempt to impose Anglicanism and feared a return to Catholicism.
National Covenant and Political Struggle
In 1638, in response to King Charles I’s efforts to enforce Anglican practices in Scotland, representatives from various sectors of Scottish society convened and signed the National Covenant, a pledge to resist liturgical innovations deemed contrary to their religious convictions. The Covenanters believed they were defending an established and divinely ordained form of religion, and their movement quickly gained widespread support across Scotland, except in areas like Aberdeenshire and Banff, which were strongholds of Royalist and Episcopalian resistance.
Wars of the Three Kingdoms and Alliances
The Covenanters played a crucial role in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, a series of civil wars that included the English Civil War. Initially, they maintained a neutral stance but soon became actively involved, sending troops to support their co-religionists in the Irish Rebellion. This period saw the radicalization of views in Scotland and Ireland. The Covenanters, being Calvinists, believed in the divine right of a “well-ordered” monarchy and initially sought to defend the king’s authority. However, as the conflict progressed, they formed an alliance with the English Parliamentarians, on the condition that Presbyterianism would be implemented in England and Ireland.
The Solemn League and Covenant
In 1643, the Covenanters and the English Parliamentarians formed an alliance, solidified by the signing of the Solemn League and Covenant. This agreement aimed to ensure the preservation of Presbyterianism in Scotland and its establishment in England and Ireland. The Covenanters’ involvement in the English Civil War was significant, as they provided crucial support to the Parliamentarian cause.
The alliance with the English Parliamentarians, however, was strained when promises to introduce Presbyterianism in England and Ireland were not fulfilled. As a result, the Covenanters later switched their allegiance to support Charles II, hoping to secure a Presbyterian settlement. However, this alliance was short-lived, as they were ultimately defeated by Oliver Cromwell’s forces.
Restoration and Persecution
The restoration of the Stuart monarchy in 1660 under Charles II brought new challenges for the Covenanters. Charles II sought to assert royal authority over the church and reintroduce episcopalianism, leading to a period of intense persecution against Covenanters. Religious assemblies or “conventicles” outside the Church of England’s authority were declared illegal, marking the beginning of an ‘underground’ period for the Covenanter movement. Despite losing support among the Scottish elites, the Covenanters retained considerable backing among the less powerful in the Presbyterian Lowlands.
Throughout this period, the Covenanters attempted several armed uprisings, most notably in 1666 and 1679, but were often defeated by better-trained and organized government troops. These uprisings and the subsequent martyrdom of many Covenanters contributed to their image as folk heroes in Scottish history. This period also saw the Covenanters’ cultural impact grow, particularly during the romanticized interest in the 1800s, when they were often depicted in art and literature as defenders of religious freedom against tyranny.
Covenanters in Later Years
Following the Glorious Revolution of 1688, which saw the deposition of James II and VII and the ascension of William and Mary to the throne, the religious and political landscape of Scotland underwent significant changes. The Revolution Settlement of 1689-1690 reinstated Presbyterianism as the national church of Scotland, marking a victory for the Covenanters’ long-held goals. This development effectively ended the period of persecution and legalized the Presbyterian form of worship, aligning the church more closely with Covenanter principles.
Despite this triumph, the legacy of the Covenanters continued to influence Scottish society and culture. The principles for which they had fought – particularly the emphasis on the sovereignty of God in church affairs and the rejection of undue civil interference – remained integral to Scottish Presbyterianism. The experiences of the Covenanters during their period of struggle and persecution also contributed to a sense of Scottish national identity, intertwining religious conviction with a narrative of resistance against external domination.
Cultural and Historical Significance
The Covenanters’ story has been memorialized in various forms of cultural expression, including literature, art, and commemorative practices. Their tale has been told in historical works, novels, and poems, often portraying them as martyrs and champions of religious liberty. The sites of significant battles and events associated with the Covenanters have become places of historical interest, attracting visitors interested in Scotland’s religious and national history.
image via Au Loudon